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(1) Electromotive Force (EMF): This refers to the voltage measured across the battery’s terminals when it is not connected to any load. It represents the potential difference between the positive and negative electrodes in an open-circuit condition. EMF is a crucial indicator of the battery’s chemical state and its ability to deliver energy.
(2) Internal Resistance (R): When a battery is connected to a load, the internal resistance can be calculated using the formula R = (E - U) / I, where E is the EMF, U is the terminal voltage, and I is the current. Internal resistance includes the resistance from the plates, separators, electrolyte, and connections. A lower internal resistance generally indicates better performance and higher capacity, as it allows more current to flow with less energy loss.
(3) Cut-off Voltage: This is the minimum voltage at which a battery should be stopped from discharging to prevent damage. If discharged below this level, the battery may suffer irreversible damage. The cut-off voltage varies depending on the discharge rate. For example, at a 1-hour discharge rate, the cut-off voltage is approximately 1.68V, while at a 10-hour rate, it increases to around 1.835V. The formula used is U_final = 1.66 + 0.0175h, where h is the discharge hour rate.
(4) Discharge Rate: This refers to how quickly a battery can release its stored energy. It is usually expressed in terms of hours, such as a 10-hour discharge rate, meaning the battery is fully discharged over 10 hours. A higher discharge rate means a larger current is drawn, which can affect the overall capacity and efficiency of the battery.
(5) Charge Rate: Similar to discharge rate, the charge rate determines how fast a battery can be recharged. The most common charge rate is the 10-hour rate, where the battery is charged over 10 hours to reach full capacity. Faster charging requires higher current, but this can reduce battery life if done too frequently.
(6) Cycle Life: This measures how many complete charge-discharge cycles a battery can undergo before its capacity significantly decreases. Fixed lead-acid batteries typically last around 300–500 cycles, while valve-regulated sealed lead-acid batteries can handle up to 1000–1200 cycles. With proper maintenance, these batteries can last more than 10 years, making them suitable for long-term applications.
Understanding these parameters helps users choose the right battery for their needs and ensures optimal performance and longevity. Whether in automotive, industrial, or renewable energy systems, knowing the battery's characteristics is vital for reliable operation.
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